金闲评
Wednesday, April 23, 2008
  我们都是地球人
FT读者:Liu Yang
2008年4月23日 星期三

FT中文网编辑:

我这几天被中国人的爱国热情惊呆了,做了中国人这么多年,还从来没感觉到潜伏在中国人心里的爱国热情是这么深厚,有一位大师说过,说国家不好,说国家好都是爱国。

我从小就生长在少数民族地区──延吉,那里的主要民族是朝鲜族,父母为了我的前途也许也是多一份技能,就把我送到了朝鲜族学校,妈妈是半个蒙古族,但是她一点蒙古族的文化、文字礼教都没有。只是因为生第二个孩子,她才常常向别人提起自己可以有第二个孩子的理由。

父亲是真正的汉族,爷爷那一辈都是梳着辫子从河北乡下用马车拉着裹着小脚的奶奶,为了躲避饥荒来到了这个离哪里都遥远的地方。

这个城市因为有两个没有什么相似之处的民族,变得格外有民族性。民族的概念非常的强烈,所有的文字都是两种语言——两种官方语言,甚至从穿着打扮都可以看出你是属于哪个群体的。

在70 年代末我的童年时期,父母亲实在是找不到更好的培养我特长的方式,因为很多大门都是只对着朝鲜族学生敞开着的,少年宫里不收汉族学生,那时又没有钱请家教,孩子几乎是没有机会受到什么特长培训的。父亲说朝鲜不会永远这么穷下去,也许等你长大了朝鲜统一了,强大了会请你去做重要职务,比如给领导当当翻译什么的。于是我就被送到了朝鲜族小学。

那时候还小,没有什么民族的概念,可是老师跟家长都有这个概念,他们不喜欢我这样的一个另类坐在那里──话也讲不明白、听也听不懂,长相、穿着、名字都奇怪。老师们也不喜欢我的父母,因为我的父母都不懂朝鲜语,老师们要很吃力的讲汉语,或者由我来当翻译。

后来在医院里工作的母亲可以给我的班主任一些公费医疗的特殊照顾,久而久之老师对我也好起来了。但是赢得同学的喜欢可就没有那么容易了,我经常被淘气的孩子围着说我的衣服,说我的脸,说我的发音,还有人打我。很多次我都是哭着回家,说再也不想去学校了,我不喜欢做异类。妈妈说你要坚强,如果有人打你,你就打他,手里有什么你就扔什么,你一定要抵抗到底,多抵抗几次就好了。这一招果然管用,可是我也变成了一个泼辣没有涵养的野丫头了。

于是在我小学4年级的时候,妈妈把我送到了一所汉族学校让我试听两天课,我去了一个上午,就偷偷的溜出来了,我说我还是喜欢说朝鲜语(不记得我自己说过,但是妈妈记得)。妈妈跟我达成协议,以后不可以再提去汉族学校的事情,这次决定了就要坚持到底(我也不知道这个底,到底有多深),于是我重返朝鲜族学校。

我也安下心来了,也开始喜欢我的同伴了,我开始交朋友,开始努力学习,也开始享受自己的特别。毕竟2000多人的学校里只有我一个人是真正的中国人(父亲说的)(父亲还说他们都是朝鲜人,因为历史关系,祖先来到中国,是移民,要很多代以后才会打心里爱上我们的国家)。国家为了讨好他们,当地的高级职位都给朝鲜族做了,什么局长、院长、党委书记等等,毕竟这么大一个边疆,不是靠着强压政策就管理得好的。有好政策,升官发财的事情都是先让给朝鲜族,考大学也是用自己的语言,自己人出考卷,所以可以比拿汉语考试的同学占优势。

后来中国跟韩国建交,很多朝鲜族借着语言的优势去韩国打工做生意。80年代末的中国跟韩国的经济差别很大,一开始韩国人十分欢迎同胞(他们称朝鲜族为同胞),觉得同胞们在异国受到苦难了,拼命地帮他们。他们也为韩国的繁荣骄傲,并且懊恼自己没有出生在韩国,可是接二连三的朝鲜族非法入境、打工、假结婚等现实给韩国造成经济社会负担,韩国人开始有选择地对待同胞,慢慢地对他们也冷落了。

在延吉为优等公民,在韩国沦为不讨人喜欢的异类,所以90年代去过韩国的人都很强烈称自己为中国人。文化背景是一样的,但又是不一样的,历史写到朝鲜战争开始就完全不一样,说话说到现代物品就都不一样,韩国语里越来越多的掺着不伦不类的英语,朝鲜语里掺着莫名其妙的汉语,我想今天的年轻朝鲜族跟韩国人沟通起来会有语言障碍。不过多亏韩剧的热播,让好多年轻朝鲜族更贴近了韩国文化。

我们(朝鲜族,汉族和其他民族)住在同一个城市,呼吸着同一样的空气,看的是一样的报纸,听到的是一样的言论,思想上却不能互相融入自己的生活。比如说我的父母亲戚会不停地告诫我,不要领一个朝鲜族人做老公,你只是去学语言,不是要变成他们,比如说朝鲜族的父母亲会告诫他们的儿子离我远点,千万不能领回来一个汉族母老虎,以后你连饭都吃不上…… 还有汉族人说你长得气质都像汉族,就是夸你漂亮,如果换了朝鲜族说你怎么跟汉族人似的,就是在损你。

我在这种氛围里成长着,我想有一天我要是个没有民族的人多好,为什么是什么民族这么重要呢?我们是朋友,我们是地球人,为什么总觉得自己比别人优越呢?

现在我生活在很排外的德国,在这里经常有人会问,你是哪个国家的?因为商家大部分比较偏心日本人(花钱比较奢侈,做人比较谨慎,遵守公共道德),当听到我说中国人时一般都有些失望(声音比较大,砍价最厉害,社会公德差),这让我想起了在延吉的两个民族之间的矛盾,我想起了父亲说的话,移民要很多代以后才会爱上这个国家,我这一辈子可能是不会爱上德国的。

大家最近在抵制法国货,称爱国就不要买法国货,我说这是扯不上的两种关系,不过这是渴望民主自由的中国各族人民的演习。终于大家可以对自己感兴趣相关于政治的事情说话了,这又正好符合国家政策大潮流,所以这件事情可以引起这么大反响。

我说,如果你爱国,你少在公共场所吸支烟,别让你的同胞跟家人受到污染;如果你爱国,记得到超市去拿着自己购物袋;如果你爱国,你要为我们失去最后一只长江河豚,感到内疚与气愤;如果你爱国,请去关心关心我们在山区里一年也见不到父母一面的孩子;如果你爱国,请你把痰咽到肚里去,要不你就处理好,别来恶心我们已经很恶心的环境。吃饭要记得吃干净,浪费粮食可耻,水要喝完,那么多河流都污染了,我们可千万不能再浪费。什么名贵表啊,包啊,车啊不会为你迎来别人对你的尊重,爆发户一样地炫耀只会招来别人的反感。抵制法国货抵制全西方的货,也不能改变中国被污染的现状,也不能改变中国不被西方理解的事实。

不要问我是什么民族,不要问我是哪国人,我想说我是地球人。你也是,他也是,我们都是地球人,我们热爱,我们骄傲,我们有责任,有义务把一个完好的地球留给下一代。
 
Wednesday, April 16, 2008
  西藏問題:中國難解的癥結
作者Francesco Sisci是意大利《新聞報》(La Stampa)的駐京編緝。
2008/04/16, 週三

北京 --- 懷著最好的動機去翻看歷史,我們很難為西藏找到證明或反駁它與北京關係的證據。然而,被中國當作意識形態工具使用了幾個世紀後,歷史已無法繼續為今日的問題提供幫助。

事實上,中國不需要歷史來證明西藏是其領土的一部分。地域政治,已是最好的出發點。若拋開歷史談西藏,將會給現代中國的意識形態中留下一個巨大的空洞;簡單地以地緣政治取代歷史,也是非常危險的,因為這要求中國推出相應政策,以求得海內外在此問題上的一致。說到底,西藏問題的癥結在於管治不力。要知道,很多藏人依然忠於達賴喇嘛,而北京對此頗有介懷。

幾百年來,歷史(對它的管理與操縱)就像指南針一樣,創造了統治中國所必要的意識形態範例。中國上世紀初之所以選擇馬克思主義,完全是因為歷史唯物主義與中華文化的關鍵特徵(如對歷史的激情和非常實用的本質)產生了共鳴。歷史與實踐合拍,也是幾個世紀以來的事實了。

最近發生的西藏危機,卻以前所未有的方式挑戰著歷史,並迫使中國尋找新的指南針。實踐與實際原因,都無法再和歷史及對歷史的操作相銜接

3月14日的西藏起義及隨後出現在其他中國城市的藏人遊行,均為中國未來提出了一系列問題。這些問題超越了抗議活動本身,也超越了順利舉辦北京奧運會的迫切要求;這些問題事關中國的歷史、地理及它在全球的角色。

中國政府稱,西藏隸屬於中國的歷史,可追溯到元朝甚至更遠古。有著政府背景的中國網(china.org.cn)寫道:藏族的民族英雄松贊干布兼併十餘個部落和部族,建立了吐蕃王朝,疆域覆蓋今日西藏的大部分地方。他曾兩次派遣大臣赴唐廷求婚,於公元641年迎娶了唐太宗的宗女文成公主。

1271年,蒙古汗政權定國號為元,並於1279年統一全中國,建立了統一的中央政權,西藏成為中國元朝中央政府直接治理下的一個行政區域。考慮到當地歷史傳統、社會狀況與自然條件、種族與宗教,元朝政府對西藏實行了有別於其他10個行政區的特別措施。

首先,元朝皇帝忽必烈汗命薩迦派的西藏喇嘛八思巴(Pagba)為“帝師”,加封“大寶法王”,主管全國佛教和西藏地方政務。這是中國歷史上僧人所取得的最高封號。

第二,元朝在建立不久還成立了總制院,管轄全國的佛教事務與西藏的軍政事務。1288年,它改名為宣政院;丞相通常負責宣政院,而由“帝師”提名的僧人擔任副手。就這樣,中國歷史上首個專管西藏事務的中央機構正式宣告成立。

第三,元朝還將西藏劃分為不同的行政區,並提拔各級別官員,以加強行政管理,而“帝師”則承擔整體責任。

不過,以此稱西藏是中國領土的一部分,有些牽強。原因有兩個:1,將元朝的情況當作中華的傳統,存在爭議。當時的統治者為蒙古人,官方語言為蒙古語或波斯語,而漢人只是二等公民。

2,蒙古人通過支持不同派系,介入了西藏的權力鬥爭,但是這種行為有沒有上升為直接對西藏的統治和管理,還存在爭議。美國漢學家白慕堂(Thomas Bartlett)如此總結:“蒙古人的元朝僅通過藏族宗教領袖之手來施加對西藏的統治,並沒有征服、佔領或統治西藏。”

到了清朝(1644-1912),情況又完全不同。當時,西藏一直是滿族人、准葛爾人及俄國人三方角力的一個主要目標;滿族人與准葛爾人更為西藏的控制權而鬥爭了多年。

防止西藏精神領袖與准葛爾人結盟,也就成了滿族人當時政策的重中之重。康熙皇帝還曾將自己比作將八思巴奉為“帝師”的忽必烈汗之轉世。

這一比較並不合適,因為忽必烈汗是出於宗教信仰,而康熙則完全是帶有政治目的。還有人說,六世達賴喇嘛1706年被謀殺,得到了康熙的默許,因為他既有動機又有手段。1708年,六世達賴的轉世靈童在滿族人控制下的“康區”(Khams,今四川西部的西康地區)找到,正中康熙的下懷。這個孩子成長的一切,都在康熙的過問之下。1720年,他被清兵護送入藏,行使達賴的權力。

一些史料認為,清朝對西藏的吞併始於此時。不過,這實屬誇張。滿族人竭力希望在西藏建立以達賴喇嘛為首的傀儡政權;1721年,康熙在一份聖旨中稱西藏已被滿族統治80年,並打算用更嚴厲的文字寫明二者的關係。藏人表示,應繼續延續傳統的“施主與喇嘛”關係,即不認為康熙與達賴喇嘛的關係為“君臣關係”。 美國漢學家牟複禮(Frederick W. Mote)在《900—1800年之中華帝國》(哈佛大學出版社1999年出版)寫道:從當地管理來看,西藏仍獨立於清朝;身為領導者的喇嘛們並未得到除此之外的任何政治利益。

牟複禮說,清朝成立管理蒙古、俄人和西藏事務的中央機構—理藩院,進一步證明了他的觀點。蒙古的一部分屬於清朝,也有疆域屬於准葛爾人;俄羅斯則從中亞和東北亞對清朝虎視眈眈。

美國的中國歷史學家彼得•普度(Peter C. Perdue)在新著《中國挺進西---大清對歐亞中心的征服》(China Marches West, The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia,哈佛大學出版社2005年出版)寫道:“西藏發生內亂,令雍正皇帝下定決心,派兵進藏。1720年,清兵在康熙的命令下已進駐拉薩,趕走了准葛爾人,並成立了軍政府,還受到了當地百姓的歡迎。被准葛爾人佔據的布達拉宮,重新回到了達賴喇嘛的手中。佔領者的官邸均被拆毀,而年僅12歲的七世達賴則淪為了西藏貴族們統治的傀儡。兩位最有權力的人是西藏西部噶倫瑣南多結(Sonam Stobgyal),又名頗羅鼐(Polhanas),和康濟鼐。二人曾率眾抵抗准葛爾人的統治;三位清兵官員連同三千人的部隊,一同監督著西藏政府的運作。西藏的局勢並未因此獲得穩定,因為當地統治者仍無法成立一個名至實歸的集權化議會。”

駐紮的清兵,逐漸成了藏人們的負擔。當地的穀物價格飛漲,儘管清朝政府花費了鉅資,千里迢迢地從內地向西藏運送糧食。主將年羹堯和延信(康熙的侄子)曾向康熙進奏,應儘快從拉薩減少駐兵。雍正則下令迅速撤軍,以實現其加強內線防禦工事的計劃,如與准葛爾人議和,減輕百姓的負擔。康濟鼐曾懇求雍正再次考慮,但遭到拒絕。

這段描述與牟複禮的觀點並不矛盾。由於它強調了當地貴族的角色,為討論清政府在西藏事務中所實際扮演的角色留下了空間。雍正想安撫准葛爾人,因此下令放棄對西藏的完全控制,以避免與這位好戰的鄰居發生更多衝突。當時,清朝已無法應付與准葛爾人的消耗戰,還要提防東進中的俄羅斯人。如此分析,清兵從西藏撤出有兩個原因:駐藏清兵無法從貧困的當地得到供給,而由於交通落後和成本太高,從周邊省份運輸補給也不現實。

如今,北京大可以稱情況已發生了翻天覆地的變化。向西藏提供物流補給,不再“難於上青天”;中國的國力雄厚,足以維持在拉薩及西藏其他地方的駐軍。此外,它無需討好准葛爾人之類的周邊對手,也無需應對象18世紀的沙皇俄國那樣虎視眈眈的外國列強。簡而言之,中國如今能竭盡全力實現歷史上無法完成的任務—全面控制西藏。儘管如此,西藏與北京的政治關係仍停滯不前。

值得一提的是,英國在乾隆時期承認西藏是清政府的藩屬。在說到北京與高麗(今朝鮮半島)、暹羅(今泰國)等如今已脫離中華版圖的領土的政治關係時,用“藩屬”一詞似乎並不貼切。但英國人或認為這個寓意模糊的詞語恰恰能掩飾他們垂涎中國領土的野心。當時,沙皇俄國從北蠶食著清朝的疆域;法國人已佔領了越南,隨時準備向北進犯;統治著印度的英國人,則希望把女皇的恩澤惠及喜馬拉雅高原。若能證明清朝對西藏等領土的統治已到了事實上或法理上分崩離析的地步,顯然對這些西方列強都是件好事。

從現代的角度來看,中共1950年之後對西藏的統治模式,可謂是前無古人。當然,中共對整個中國的統治模式,同樣是史前無例。用10萬官員來管理4億國民(官民比例為1:4,000),已令乾隆皇帝感到很滿意。

若將這一比例擴大20倍,即一名官員擁有隨從、護衛、秘書等20人並不過分,則變成了每200名百姓中有一名官員。當時,清政府還實行著兩級體系,即官員由中央供養,而護衛、秘書等則由地方承擔。如此一來,中央很難避免地方官員變成“土皇帝”的情況,因為地方的管理權已大多落入了與官員有密切關係的貴族和富人手中。

為避免這一惡果,中共在全國各地都建立了黨組織,黨員人數也因此大大增加。他們嚴格執行黨紀,使中央指令得以迅速傳播至國家的每一個角落;現代通信技術的應用,更大大縮短了這一過程。目前,中國總人口不到14億,但黨員人數卻已達到了7,000萬。

理論上講,所有官員均受制於中央,並受中央的監督。同樣,由於中央有能力繞過中低層官員,沒有人能成為“土皇帝”。中共對西藏的影響,與它對其他省份的影響幾無差別。

上述分析自有其重要性,因為它為中國統治西藏提供了合法解釋。若缺少這一點,中國或許能用武力征服西藏,但此舉無疑會影響北京在海內外的形象。這一觀點,是在1950年後才逐漸形成的。

美國藏史研究專家史伯林(Elliot Sperling)的《漢藏衝突的歷史及爭辯》(The Tibet-China Conflict: History and Polemics)一文,被刊登在美國東西方研究中心(EWC)在2004年第七期的《政策研究》(Policy Studies)中。他在文中寫道:

在新中國建立後,中共成為了自清朝覆滅以來有能力與決心主張擁有西藏的首個政府。對中國領導人而言,特別是那些知識分子,過去的征戰與屈服已不足以創造歷史。從唯物主義的歷史觀來看,“西藏是中國的一部分”需要科學化的印證和證實。受此理念驅動,中共認真研究了西藏歷史上隸屬於中華的性質,隨後得出了沿用幾十年的結論,即在蒙古人的元朝將西藏與中國各地納入版圖之下時,西藏已成為中國的一部分。

受當時的意識形態所限,人們無法接受中國純粹是出於地域政治的原因而進入了西藏高原。無奈之下,中共只好把解放當地百姓(符合共產主義理念)和繼承歷史(符合中華歷史),作為控制西藏的合法解釋。

隨後,人們在談到西藏時的用詞也發生了變化。民族主義者曾樂意將西藏稱為“處於中國主權之下”或是中國的“藩屬”。但這兩個概念有著很濃厚的殖民主義色彩,與當時剛剛經歷了革命的新中國不相符。50年代,中國創造了一個描述西藏地位的、且目前沿用至今的詞語—“中國的一部分”。這個詞非常模糊,足以經受人們對西藏與中國既往管理的認真考究;同時,它又非常精確,指明了西藏屬於中國。

然而,這種過於依賴歷史的立場,卻讓問題變得更加複雜。武力及因此取得的勝利,不足以令公眾達成共識。教育自有其存在的理由,而歷史則被認為是最實用、且文明很多的手段。不過,它需要對史實進行操縱與教育等複雜動作。然而,這類動作越多,越容易給其他歷史解讀資料留下可攻擊的漏洞;研究的歷史越長,發現的漏洞也就會越多。例如,西方歷史學家多次指出,明朝政府並未在西藏建立政權,“明朝沒有在西藏頒佈任何法令、徵收任何賦稅等”。

這種說法,無疑令西藏為中國藩屬的說法站不住腳。歷史漏洞之所以會出現,主要是因為歷史是在為政治服務,與之相左的歷史觀點都清除出了史書。

19世紀中葉之前,當不少國家附屬於中國時,這種手法還算有效。進入現代社會,中國想繼續做到滴水不漏儼然困難萬分,且加強修改過的歷史教育,反而弱化了官方立場。一旦人們對中國在西藏問題上的聲明產生懷疑,他們也會質疑政府的其他聲明。

正由於西藏歷史存在爭議,西藏問題讓中國人與外國人感到模糊,也就毫不出奇了。比起西藏,越南似乎更有理由被認為是中國的一部分,因為它有幾百年一直使用漢字,語言與華南地區的方言相近,並在漢朝時歸順;相反,西藏的語言和文字,完全與漢人不同,與中國接觸的歷史也相對較短。然而,歷史弄人:西藏成了中國的一部分,而越南卻是個獨立國家。朝鮮半島的例子,也能說明這一問題。

越南的例子,似乎更有意思。1950年,人民解放軍分別到達西藏和越南邊境。若繼續前進的話,中國將難免與法國發生直接衝突,因為越南當時是法國的殖民地;而西藏就不同,並沒有其他大國的保護。英國雖然因1947年印巴分治而撤離印度,但仍在亞洲保留了大部分利益。它本應該在西藏成立類似於攝政體制的政府,對其提供包括軍事支援在內的幫助;它本可以在喜馬拉雅高原保留駐軍,監視中國的一舉一動。顯然,新成立的中國必然不敢輕舉妄動。

印巴分治剛實現,第一次印巴戰爭的戰火旋即燃起。因此,兩國無暇關注西藏問題。對印度而言,它更情願中國人出現在喜馬拉雅高原,而不是英國人。當達賴喇嘛1959年出逃至印度時,尼赫魯還就向西藏難民提供保護的可能性而咨詢毛澤東的意見。據說,這位中國領導人當時回答說,讓藏民呆在友好的印度總比在敵對的美國好。

基於以上原因,中國軍隊進入了西藏。

英國在乾隆時期承認西藏是中國的藩屬,但是如何理解和從政治上翻譯這個詞,卻有些難度。別忘了,對北京而言,高麗、暹羅和西藏雖然同為藩屬,但地位卻明顯不同。那麼“藩屬”一詞與當時的殖民地有無區別呢?如今,殖民地已成為昨日黃花,但俄羅斯和美國等大國仍將殖民擴張時所侵佔的土地納入了自己的版圖。

它們之所能這樣做,是因為地域的連貫性。英法之所以喪失了殖民地,恰恰是缺少這一因素。中國對西藏擁有主權,也是出於這一原因。事實上,清朝時處理西藏政務的理蕃院,在英文中就常被翻譯為“殖民地事務辦公室”。在《聯豫駐藏奏稿》(1979年出版)中,中國藏學家吳豐培將清朝在西藏的工作與英、美、法、荷的殖民機構進行了比較。

當然,在反殖民運動日益高漲的50年代,中國若繼續把西藏當作殖民地,顯然不合時宜。當時,蘇聯、美國等其他國家,靠著地域連貫性的便利,保留了在殖民時期佔領、征服或因原住民稀少而佔有的大幅領土。

在19 世紀,國體不同且邊境劃分也不同。歐洲國家會以共享的權力與義務來劃分邊境線。若不承認這一政治原則,就有被其他國家吞併的危險。清朝則是個特例。它太強大無法被瓜分,而其遵守的政治原則也與歐洲不同。當時,西方外交官(很多後來變成了歷史學家)嘗試著將中國的政治領土原則翻譯過來;有了這些譯稿,他們便開始順理成章侵佔清朝領土。

上世紀初,孫中山和他領導的國民黨作出了回應,向海內外人士重申了中國在疆域問題上的立場。這些聲明為現代中國的疆域定了基調,並把西藏、新疆和蒙古包括在內。為提高中國人在洋人面前的自豪感,孫中山指出中國有著5,000年的悠久歷史,比西方文化的鼻祖古希臘與古羅馬還早數千年。此後,唯有幾百年歷史的國家均被認為是年輕國家,還可能被看不起。

在年輕、精力充沛的、現代化的西方人面前,中國人常常感到自慚形穢。孫中山的政治新發明,無疑提升了同胞們的民族自豪感。孫中山說,年輕一無是處,古老才是真正文明的原因。中國的傳統文化也屢屢搶到這一點,稱沒有國家能比中國更古老,更有價值。

國民黨在歷史與地理上的立場,為中共後來執政打造了“具有中國特色的”基礎。儘管有著如此驕人的進步,國民黨在清朝覆滅後仍缺乏統一中國疆域的能力,更別提做出其他領土聲明了。也只有在1949年後,中國人才擁有了這樣的能力。

在西藏方面,情況並沒有變得清晰起來。與中方擺出的大量資料文件相比,藏民在主張獨立時所能提供的歷史證據實在少得可憐。西藏之所想獨立,癥結在於它認為與中國的關係就像中亞地區較為普遍的喇嘛與施主之間的關係。其中,中國是施主,而西藏是喇嘛。

隨著時間和環境的遷移,喇嘛與施主的關係或會有著截然不同的政治含義。理論上,無論西藏與中國的關係是藩屬、獨立、或是某種形式的依付,這種喇嘛與施主的關係都與之並存。事實上,即使是中方最空泛的歷史描述,也比藏方的說法接近現實。藏人以宗教人物與普通信眾的關係來形容兩者的關係,反擊中方的歷史論據。不過,最後雙方都不願聆聽對方的觀點。

西藏似乎從其在20世紀上半葉所處的狀態中找到了獨立的政治理由,稱西藏在中國軟弱的情況下事實上已獲得獨立。的確,中國很多省份當時也面臨這種情況;但沒有國家承認西藏或中國其他省份的獨立地位。

解放軍1949年入藏,將其融入現代化的中國,自然有了充分的地域政治理由。一談到中國,人們自然而然會想到它長達5,000年的漫長歷史。歷史如此悠久,西藏在其中佔據了至少20%的時間段。因此,我們得知西藏從1,000多年前的元朝起開始屬於中國。

與孫中山時期備受屈辱的中國及新中國成立初期相比,局勢已發生了顯著變化。5,000年歷史的想法,失去了相應的作用:當年,它提高了中國人的民族自豪感,如今卻讓這個民族變得有些自大傲慢。若指望在未來幾十年裏擠入第一世界,中國應該謙虛和低調,前提是它仍希望在和平中崛起。它目前的疆域不會改變;其他國家也無意改變這一局勢。

就像以色列與美國一樣,今日的中國既可以說是個古老國家,也可以稱之為年輕國家。說它古老,是因為它的歷史延綿數千年。以色列也在1949年前後建國,但歷史能上溯到摩西及古埃及時代;美國建國於1776年,毫無疑問是個年輕國家,但它的一切傳統均來自於同樣有著數千年歷史的歐洲大陸。

一條新的歷史年線,或許能讓中國的領土聲明在政治找到合理與合法性。歷史年線越短,在解釋時遺留的漏洞也就越少。

這時,我們就不能不提及達賴喇嘛的政治作用了。從新中國建立伊始,達賴與班禪的地位便被中共領導人放在其他西藏喇嘛之上;他們二人在藏民的文化與宗教生活中的影響力,可以窺豹一斑。

有著傳奇經歷與享譽全球的十四世達賴喇嘛,在藏民甚至華人中都有著廣泛的影響力。實際上,達賴喇嘛對藏民的號召力,遠遠超過了教皇對基督教徒的影響。首先,教皇代表著上帝,但他並不是上帝。他是選舉產生的,任職20~30年;而達賴與活佛無異,是終身制。其次,達賴是民族與文化的象徵,而教皇絕無這一功能。

若中共官員鼓勵僧人和普通百姓譴責達賴喇嘛,以便親北京的班禪喇嘛能儘快得到認同,簡直就是搬起石頭砸自己的腳。僧人怎會去譴責自己的佛祖,自己的身份呢?藏民怎會否認自己的信仰、自己的身份呢?如果要這樣做,他當初何必要當僧人呢?既然生為藏民,這種身份又如何放棄呢?同樣,一個信奉基督的漢人也不會去譴責自己的信仰或自己的漢人身份。迫於高壓時,西藏僧人可能會不得不臥薪嚐膽,尋找痛斥統治者的最佳時機。

西藏問題,似乎變成了時間遊戲。若達賴喇嘛過幾年去世,而藏民抗議活動盡在中央政府的控制之下,北京所考慮的就是提升班禪喇嘛的地位,使其的影響力超過其他流亡海外的喇嘛。即便到時北京與西藏流亡政府各選出一位達賴的轉世靈童,中國仍有20年來控制局勢。屆時,流亡海外的達賴將無法獲得藏民的認同,也就只剩下親北京的班禪與達賴了。

對中國而言,這種情況最為理想。它將獲得將西藏藩屬化的時間與機遇。但這可能造成漢人與藏民的分歧更加嚴重,因為藏民在文化上已瀕臨被徹底消滅的地步。

達賴喇嘛批評說,中國政府在西藏實行文化滅絕政策,破壞所有的文化遺產。但大部分中國人對這一點都閉耳不聞。在過去60年利,中國領導人已對自己的文化實施了“滅絕政策”,並認為這是邁向現代化、成為發達國家的必經之路。全球化,也是造成這一現象的部分原因。在全球化進程中,不少本土文化都消失在全球的大熔爐中。

中國人認為,他們對西藏文化的保護力度,遠大於對自己的文化。這種心態,相信還會持續到未來。畢竟,中國就是個歷史的大熔爐,成功消化了清朝的滿族文化、元朝的蒙古文化、唐朝的突厥文化。為何要放過西藏文化呢?

但如果達賴喇嘛依然健康長壽,藏民抗議活動不斷升級,國際社會的關注並未因奧運會勝利閉幕而轉移,北京就不得不同達賴喇嘛展開對話,不然將帶來重重麻煩。達賴也是能令西藏局勢走向緩和的唯一人物。

如果藏民抗議持續,但北京拒絕與達賴對話,那對國際社會而言,中國顯得非常無情。在國際社會上,達賴是位德高望重的宗教人物。長時間不與其展開對話,將有損中國的國際形象,特別是在全球對中國未來的發展動機日益擔心的時候。廢除西藏傳統文化,屆時很可能會被視為一種令人警惕的信號。

中國與西藏的未來歷史如何書寫,很大程度上取決於之後十年所發生的事情和中國在達賴喇嘛問題上的處理方式。

或許,中國應研究一番歷史在中華帝國與在古羅馬中所扮演的不同角色。

在中國,歷史是為皇帝撰寫的;而古羅馬則允許歷史學家有著獨立觀點。事實上,他們常與元老院一條戰線,對皇帝並非言聽計從。正因如此,我們才知道古羅馬最荒淫的皇帝卡里古拉(Caligula)曾提名他的禦馬進入元老院,而暴君尼祿(Nero)故意在羅馬城縱火,然後嫁禍於基督教徒,以便對他們進行迫害。這些皇帝的舉止,聽起來都瘋子一樣,但史書並未因此而抹殺他們在關鍵時期維護並擴大帝國疆域的功勞。就連古羅馬的宿敵漢尼拔(Hannibal),也被歷史學家描述成一位尊貴的將軍;雖然古羅馬視過著遊牧生活的日耳曼人為蠻族,但不妨礙史書將他們稱為偉大的好戰民族。

史書對古羅馬敵人和自身缺點的描述,非但未貶低國家的形象,反而讓它高尚起來,變成了一個成功克服了種種困難與挫折、並最終邁向勝利的帝國。在美國新聞界與當代史中,就可以察覺到這一傳統的影子:作家們深入探討國家面臨的種種問題,在最後呈現一個邁向勝利的美國形象。這樣的歷史更有說服力,因為它沒有刪除與之觀點相左的版本,聽起來更具真實性。隨著古羅馬最終的勝利,歷史更加證明了國家的真正偉大,因為它成功邁過了所有艱難險阻。

然而,上述情況不可能發生在中國。正史雖然談到了所有歷史事件,卻很難令人信服。目前,中國已無必要去繼續撰寫有利於自己的歷史,例如在西藏問題方面。拋開了舊有的社會主義意識形態的束縛及解放人類的觀念後,單說出於地域政治原因而控制西藏,已足以避開任何危及中國統治的理論上的挑戰。然而,地域政治原因也易令情況變得複雜:它將招致惟以實力計較得失的危險,從而引起其他國家的惴惴不安。地域政治,還需與一些中國構建和諧社會目標的溫和措施相配合。也就是說,中國應通過提高管治能力,來贏得海內外支持。

中國政府以目前的政治需求為方向來調整歷史角度的做法,讓外部世界普遍感到恐慌。北京無疑在告訴世界,中國人最初並不認為他們應統治西藏;而這或許是中國面臨的最棘手問題題。

歷史之所以為此,因為所發生的大背景已成為過去。蘇聯解體是具有歷史意義的,但它不會任何地方、任何時候都適用。目前,巴爾幹化趨勢在全球日益抬頭,超過100多個要求獨立的組織活躍在世界各地。假如它們都實現各自主張的話,世界將出現100多個新生國家。

若簡單地使用民族自決權來解決問題的話,相信會在全球激起更洶湧的獨立運動。為了生存與繁榮,這些新生國家只能融入國際貿易體系,代價是被迫向世貿、聯合國或歐盟之類的國際組織放棄部分領土要求。如此一來,當初分離又有何意義呢?難道是為了滿足少數民族的野心?還是反抗單一民族的統治,爭取自由?抑或是企圖通過分裂來削弱該國實力?或者是以上動機都有?

這些才是真真切切的問題;真正的解決方法不是尋求獨立,而是提高管治水平。

就像上世紀如火如荼的共產主義運動一樣,獨立運動儼然被當作了解決凡間種種問題的革命性救世良藥。在情緒化的爭拗面前,理性總是顯得非常無助。這大概是隱藏在偽理性歷史爭拗背後的可怕內容;稍處理不慎,又往往會燃起難以駕馭的民族主義情緒。

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  西藏問題:美歐有意長期對華施壓
撰文 羅少蘭
2008/04/16, 週三

美國及歐洲議會近日分別通過有關西藏的議案,內容包括任命西藏事務特使及促請聯合國插手調查,美國更加打算在西藏建立領事館,顯示美歐有意長期作戰對西藏問題施壓,北京面臨的壓力不會隨著奧運會結束而停止,西藏問題勢將持續考驗中國政府的智慧。

美國國務卿賴斯4月8日對美國國會撥款委員會表示,美國國務院正在尋求在西藏設立領事館,稱要求建立西藏領事館已經排上了政府內部日程,正在努力爭取中,希望可以盡快落實。她又說,現時美國外交官不能夠自由進入西藏,在建立領事館後,美國可以有限地進入西藏,但她又指這樣做還不足够,意思可能提美國將會就西藏問題做出更多。

與此同時,美國參眾兩院4月9日通過議案,譴責中國鎮壓西藏抗議,並敦促北京與達賴展開直接對話。議案呼籲中國政府允許獨立監督人士、記者以及醫務人員進入西藏,釋放因發表政治言論而入獄的人士,以及放棄將北京奧運火炬傳送上珠穆朗瑪峰的計劃。

另外,歐洲議會4月10日在布魯塞爾召開的會議上,通過了“西藏問題決議案”,呼籲歐盟成員國首腦將中國政府與達賴對話作為出席北京奧運會開幕式的條件,還要求歐盟理事會任命西藏事務特使,協調中國與達賴喇嘛之間的對話,並呼籲聯合國成立獨立調查小組赴西藏調查。

分析認為,美歐政府這一連串行動,除了會在奧運期間為中國帶來尷尬外,也顯示西藏問題已經成為美國及歐盟的對華政策中一個很重要的環節,美歐將長時期持續就西藏問題向中國施壓,絕不會隨著奧運會結束而停止。

這些行動當中,以美國尋求在西藏建立領事館的計劃,對北京威脅最大。首先,美國這樣的要求聽來合情合理,令北京難以找到理由拒絕;其次,在建立領事館後,美國可以明正言順派出外交人員長期駐西藏,不但可以監察當地情況,又可以與藏民直接接觸,掌握更多北京的管治或人權問題;再者,若從陰謀角度推斷,美國又可以利用領事館作為據點,培養藏民之間的反對力量,發揮裡應外合的效果,使西藏成為更有效抗衡中國助大的手段。

歐洲議會通過的“西藏問題決議案”對北京來說也非常棘手,決議案要求歐盟理事會任命西藏事務特使,協調中國與達賴喇嘛之間的對話。這將會是一個抗日持久的任務,以歐盟理事會的辦事程序推斷,由遴選至任命西藏事務特使,需時超過一年不足為奇,期間有關的新聞每次見報,都會為北京帶來壓力。當成功任命持使後,他的每一次任務都會被廣泛報道,北京若堅拒與達賴喇嘛談判,一定會引來國際傳媒大肆批評,這種持久的國際輿論壓力,對北京而言並非容易處理的問題。

歐洲議會的“西藏問題決議案”又呼籲聯合國插手,成立獨立調查小組赴西藏調查。這項呼籲對其他國家而言,可能會構成極大壓力,但對中國來說反而比較容易處理,因為作為聯合國安理會常任理事國,中國手上的否決票,可以阻止聯合國任何決定,包括針對自己的議案在內,問題是若西藏問題真的被提交到安理會處理,將會令中國非常尷尬,這也絕非中國所願見到的。

無論如何,西藏問題乘著北京奧運再一次受到國際社會關注,美歐議會及政府近期通過的一連串措施,顯示她們將長期就西藏問題向中國施壓,北京須發揮高度的政治智慧,否則將難以招架。

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Sunday, April 13, 2008
  林毅夫:建设中国新农村的几点建议
DWNEWS.COM-- 2008年4月14日

《亚洲周刊》编者按:本文是林毅夫关於新农村建设的长文摘要。社会主义新农村建设以自然村的公共基础设施建设为着手点,以公共财政投入为主,二零二零年完成。同时推进农村的城市化进程。

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中共十六届五中全会提出建设社会主义新农村,二零零六年一号文件以此为主题,把农村工作推向了新的历史高度,建设社会主义新农村成为全党全社会的共同认识和行动纲领。以下就如何落实社会主义新农村建设谈几点建议:

一,公共基础设施建设是新农村建设的着手点。要实现「生产发展、生活宽裕、乡风文明、村容整洁、管理民主」这二十字目标,应该以建设和改善与农村生活相关的公共基础设施,也就是村容整洁作为着手点。完成了村村通电、通水、通道路,改善下水道,进行厨房革命、厕所革命,「村容整洁」的目标就可以达到。同时改善基础设施可以启动农村的存量需求,消化过剩生产能力,打通农村劳动力转移渠道,使农民收入得以快速增长,「生活宽裕」的目标才得以实现。农村劳动力的转移还可以使农产品的供给者变成需求者,农村的生产发展才不至於出现谷贱伤农的情形,农民的收入可以随着生产发展而提高,「生产发展」的积极性也就会高。村村通电视、广播可以使农民更多地接触到现代化的信息,村村通道路可以使农民更方便地融入现代化的市场体系中,才会有适应於现代化市场经济条件下的「乡风文明」的建设。

二,新农村建设的完成时间以二零二零年为宜。建设社会主义新农村和建设社会主义新中国一样,应该是一个浮动的、长期的、水涨船高的目标。但是,以公共基础设施建设为着手点的社会主义新农村建设既然是建设全面小康社会的必要内容,到二零二零年全面建成小康社会的目标完成时,也应该完成以农村公共基础设施建设为着手点的社会主义新农村建设的阶段性任务。

三,新农村建设的对象应是自然村。由於农业生产的特性,以农业生产为主业的农村居民都会选择居住在自己耕地附近。所以,除了高度发达的城市近郊,农业即将不存在,农民已经要转变为非农产业的市民,或是在不应该有经济活动、农民应该转移出来的禁止开发地区外,我国社会主义新农村建设应该以现在已经形成的、在耕地附近的自然村为建设对象,而不是拆并自然村,集中建立远离耕地的新村,也不能为了达标而要求农民拆屋建新的标准房。对於其他一些私有品,比如沼气和厕所,因为会影响公共卫生,具有一定的公共品性质,政府也只能通过补贴的方式来鼓励农民进行改造,如果农民财力不足或者没有意愿政府也不能强迫。

四,建设资金应以公共财政为主,多方筹集资金。如果以二零二零年全面建设小康社会目标实现之时,同时也是建设社会主义新农村完成之日,那麽,从二零零六年起到二零二零年平均每年需要投入二千七百亿的资金,其中有相当大的公共基础设施部分应该由公共财政来提供。

农村公共基础设施建设因为规模小、投资分散,中央和省难於直接操作,需要依靠地方政府和基层组织去落实。可以考虑采取中央和地方财政共同出资的办法,中央政府下拨资金专款专用,而且规定地方各级政府必须追加一定比例的配套资金,资金分摊的具体办法可以根据各地的实际状况在实践中探索。除此之外,也可以动用一些社会资金。同时,为了让农民有积极性参与这些项目的决策,监督这些项目的建设,也可以让农民捐一点钱。

五,城市化与新农村建设要同时推进。随着我国经济的快速发展,农村劳动力向非农产业转移,城市化是不可避免的历史趋势,今后十五年投入数万亿元人民币去建设社会主义新农村是否和这个趋势背道而驰?从统计数字来看,二零零四年我国的城镇人口仅为总人口的百分之四十一点八,即使乐观地估计到二零二零年我国实现了全面建设小康社会目标时,城市化水平提高到百分之六十,农村仍将有六亿左右的居民。而且,随着收入的提高和道路等基础设施的改善,许多在城里工作的人口也会愿意居住在农村,农村居民会高於农业人口的数量。这数亿工作和生活在农村地区的居民不会因为城市化而不需要公共基础设施,因此,社会主义新农村建设与城市化的必然趋势是并行不悖的。

综合以上讨论,社会主义新农村建设既是当前经济形势下增加农民收入,解决「三农问题」的手段,也是全面建设小康社会和构建和谐社会的必要内容,是「三农」政策所要到达的目标。只要遵行社会主义新农村建设是以现有自然村的公共基础建设为重点,资金以公共财政投入为主,由农民参与决定、设计和监工实施,那麽,社会主义新农村建设必然能够给农民带来实实在在的物质利益,到二零二零年全面建设小康社会目标实现之日,必然也能同时完成一个「生产发展、生活宽裕、乡风文明、村容整洁、管理民主」的社会主义新农村建设。■

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Thursday, April 03, 2008
  Hopes rise for Taiwan-China dialogue
By Kathrin Hille in Taipei
Wednesday Apr 2 2008, FT

Only two weeks after Ma Ying-jeou won Taiwan's presidential election in a landslide, the first signs are emerging that Taiwan and China are edging towards resuming a dialogue that has been suspended for a decade.

Mr Ma this week lauded a remark by Hu Jintao, China's president, that China and Taiwan should restore talks on the basis of an agreement to disagree on sovereignty issues which allowed the two to launch consultations in 1992. "You cannot deny that there is progress here," Mr Ma said.

In the arcane world of cross-strait diplomacy, nuances in language make a big difference. They are back in the spotlight now that Mr Ma's election has raised hopes of rapprochement in the ­Taiwan Strait.

As China refuses to recognise the existence of a separate state on Taiwan and the island refuses to renounce its sovereignty, Beijing and Taipei agreed in 1992 to recognise the existence of only one China and differ on its interpretation.

Mr Ma based his optimism this week on the understanding that Mr Hu had actually acknowledged the contents of this "92 consensus", something Beijing has refused to do for the past eight years.

According to George Tsai, one of Taiwan's foremost experts in cross-strait relations, Mr Hu's reported remarks are "a very big step forward". "So far, [Mr Ma's party, the Kuomintang] has always referred to 'one China, with different interpretations', but China preferred 'one China, no interpretation'."

Mr Hu is believed to have made the switch in a phone conversation with President George W. Bush on March 26. According to a US account of the talks, Mr Hu said: "It is China's consistent stand that the Chinese mainland and Taiwan should restore consultation and talks on the basis of 'the 1992 consensus', which sees both sides recognise there is only one China, but agree to differ on its definition."

Chen Shui-bian, Taiwan's incumbent president, argues that since China never publicly recognised the differing interpretations, Taiwan would, by agreeing to the 92 consensus, give up its claim of sovereignty. He has warned that China's official Xinhua News Agency, in its report on the Hu-Bush conversation, omitted the reference to the contents of the "consensus".

But Mr Ma argues that the vagueness of the understanding would allow the two sides to return to the negotiation table. "The whole world deals with this according to 'one China, different interpretations'. We should adopt the same kind of flexibility," he said.

Analysts expect Taipei and Beijing to continue technical talks aimed at opening non-stop weekend charter flights, which ended without results early last year, as soon as Mr Ma takes office in late May.

Higher-level, more wide-ranging dialogue through government-backed foundations, suspended since 1998, would probably resume later this year, Mr Tsai said.

According to Mr Ma, such dialogue would focus on the protection of Taiwanese investment in China, double taxation and access to the Chinese banking market, and eventually result in a Comprehensive Economic Co-operation Agreement. Only after building trust through these trade talks can the two sides move towards more sensitive issues, according to Mr Ma's road map.

Any peace agreement would be years away. All of those "political issues", says an aide to Mr Ma, are ­"second-term stuff" and "not going to happen before 2012".

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  马英九赞赏胡锦涛两岸谈判主张
英国《金融时报》席佳琳(Kathrin Hille)台北报道
2008年4月3日 星期四

马英九以压倒性优势赢得台湾总统选举才仅仅两周,就有初步迹象显示,台湾与中国大陆正在向恢复两岸对话缓步迈进。两岸对话如今已中断达10年之久。

本周,马英九对中国国家主席胡锦涛有关大陆与台湾应当在“九二共识”基础上恢复对话的表态表示赞赏。这一共识曾让双方在1992年进行协商。马英九表示:“你不能否认那是一种进步。”

在两岸外交的神秘世界中,文字上的细微之处可以造成很大的差异。马英九胜选,提升了人们对于台海两岸关系缓和的期望,这种“咬文嚼字”也再次登台。

由于中国拒绝承认台湾是一个独立的国家,而台湾拒绝放弃其主权,北京和台北在1992年达成共识,双方承认只有一个中国,但在表述上可以有所不同。

马英九本周的乐观态度,是基于这样一种理解,即胡锦涛实际上承认了“九二共识”的内容,而过去8年来北京一直拒绝这么做。

台湾最知名的两岸关系专家之一蔡玮(George Tsai)表示,报道中胡锦涛的表态是“向前迈进了很大一步”。“迄今,(马英九所在的国民党)一直在提‘一中各表',而大陆更喜欢‘一中不表'。”

据信,胡锦涛是在3月26日与美国总统布什(George W. Bush)通电话时作出上述转变的。美方的一份通话记录显示,胡锦涛说:“在‘九二共识'(即双方承认只有一个中国,但同意彼此对‘一个中国'有不同的定义)的基础上恢复两岸协商谈判是我们的一贯立场。”

台湾现任总统陈水扁提出,由于大陆从未公开承认各自表述,若台湾承认“九二共识”,就等于放弃了自己的主权主张。他警告称,大陆官方的新华社在有关胡锦涛与布什通话的报道中,避而不提“共识”的具体内容。

但马英九指出,这种理解上的模糊性,有利于双方回到谈判桌上。他说:“全世界都在按照‘一中各表'处理这件事。我们应当采取同样的灵活性。”

分析人士预期,在马英九于5月下旬上任后,台北与北京将立即重启有关开通周末包机直航的技术性谈判。此项谈判在去年早些时候无果而终。

蔡玮表示,通过有官方背景的基金会进行的级别更高、范围更广的对话,很可能会在今年晚些时候恢复。这种对话自1998年以来一直处于中断状态。

据马英九表示,对话将聚焦于保护台商在大陆的投资,避免双重征税,以及大陆银行市场的准入,最终产生一项《全面经济合作协定》。根据马英九的路线图,双方只有在通过经贸协商建立起互信之后,才能开始协商更为敏感的议题。

任何和平协议都将是多年以后的事。马英九的一名助理表示,所有这些“政治课题,都是第二个任期的事,不会在2012年之前发生”。

译者/何黎

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Wednesday, April 02, 2008
  Ex-bandits shoot blanks to avoid baby boom
By Shuriah Niazi
Apr 2, 2008, Asia Times

BHOPAL, India - In an area of India notorious for untamed outlaw activity, an innovative health campaign is using the local citizens' longstanding love affair with guns to battle overpopulation.

In the Chambal region of Madhya Pradesh - the historic stomping grounds of India's legendary "dacoit", or bandit, gangs - male villagers are lining up for nasbandi, or vasectomy, in return for a cherished gun license. Considering the area's penchant for firearms and its history of crime, men seeking gun permits in the past have faced a stiff application process. Now, men who present a sterilization certificate are sent to the front of the line.

Awarding guns to forestall a baby boom is the brain child of Bhind official Manish Shrivastava, a district tax collector. According to Shrivastava, Chambal has the highest rates of malnourished children and anemic women in India. Other family planning

campaigns, he told Asia Times Online, have misfired largely due to notions of machismo and taboos against intrusive medical procedures.

"I gathered it had to with their perceived notions of manliness. I then decided to match it with a bigger symbol of manliness, a gun license," Shrivastava told The Telegraph newspaper of Calcutta.

So far this year more than 175 men have undergone vasectomies, compared with only eight last year, and Shrivastava expects 100 more in coming weeks. But despite the desired results, the plan has drawn fire from medical and law enforcement officials. In a March 5 article in the The Telegraph, Delhi urologist Suresh Rawat blasted the idea, calling it "ridiculous and irresponsible".

But others, including many Chambal families, feel the campaign is a positive step in securing much-needed weapons, a salve for population problems and a welcome move to modernize a region still shackled to old-time traditions and a dark reputation.

Family planning, at the barrel of a gun

Chambal has been a haven for dacoits, robbers and thugs since as early as the 5th century. The region's yawning chasms and gaping ravines provide an ideal setting for banditry. According to historians, even during Mughal times the powerful administration failed to curb the menace, and as many as 216 dacoits were shot dead and 697 arrested in Bhind district alone from 1959 to 1963. Chambal was the home of the legendary bandit queen Phoolan Devi and other dreaded dacoits.

Guns, many say, are the pride of the Chambal region, and possessing one is a matter of prestige. Residents are known to spend huge sums purchasing weapons and household displays of high-caliber firearms are common. Bhind district has over 92 gun shops and over 23,000 licensed gun owners. Neighboring Shivpuri district has 11,000 gun licensees while nearby Morena district has more than 15,000. On any rural road in Morena, Shivpuri or Bhind it's easy to observe villagers with guns slung with their shoulders. In the Chambal, the gun is a status symbol.

It can also mean self-defense in a region still described as "dacoit-infested" by major Indian newspapers. Local journalist Pravin Chitransh told Asia Times Online, "Dacoits are still active in the ravines here and it is necessary to own a gun to protect oneself from the bandits. However, most bandits do not harm the common people."

Chitransh added that a man loses his honor in society if he loses his gun. A local axiom holds that a person who can't take care of his gun, is good for nothing. According to Chitransh, guns are also routinely used to settle scores. And it's not the first time that gun licenses have been used as incentives for social change. In Morena district in 2005, the superintendent of police offered gun licenses to those who provided information about the criminals.

But the Chambal region, with its rich agricultural tracts, is in the early stages of development; the topography is gradually changing with the reclamation of ravines for agricultural purpose. The dubious distinction of being the home of the dacoits is gradually fading as well. Provincial officials hope that with agricultural and irrigation the area will become prolific and prosperous and, in due time, break the crushing cycle of poverty.

Still, old traditions die hard. Even as locals turn to farming instead of banditry the issue of gun ownership remains both a necessity and social priority. As Bhind resident Sumer told Asia TImes Online, "It's the question of our pride".

Vasectomy plan under fire

Thirty-nine year old Mewat Singh underwent sterilization last month to get himself a gun license. "It's quiet difficult to get a gun license here," he said. "When the administration is offering us incentives for sterilization in the form of gun license, then why should we not take advantage of this?"

Mewat Singh is not alone in the belief that bearing arms outweighs bearing children. Hundreds of people in the region want guns and now a vasectomy is the easiest way to do it legally. As Singh pointed out succinctly, "We will have same pleasure during sex and would have a gun license as well."

"Vasectomy leaves the patient unchanged except that the vas deferens - the tubes leading to the testes - are blocked," said Bhind's Chief Medical Officer Dr Dinesh Kaushik. "The testes still produce sperm, but the sperm die and are absorbed by the body. The level of testosterone remains the same and all male sexual characteristics remain the same. For most men, the ability to have an erection is unchanged. "

Local police claim that an increase in guns does not necessarily equal an increase in crime. The Town Inspector at a police station at Bhind Mahesh Budholia said that more guns means the citizens are more empowered to protect themselves. As he put it, "For committing a crime no one will wait for gun permits. They can use illegal weapons."

Women in the area feel the measure is a good way to control the population. Kanta Tomar told Asia Times Online, " I don't see anything wrong in the proposal. After all the collector is the one who issues the gun permits. He wants that maximum number of people should go for sterilization. He is supporting the state in their efforts to control population. "

But social worker KS Mishra said that Chambal residents will simply do anything to for a gun. According to Mishra, this is not the right way to promote family planning and the "administration must take up other measures to encourage people".

Meanwhile District Collector Shrivastava is beaming. "It has helped immensely in family planning. A large number of people are coming for vasectomies in the hope of obtaining a license for the guns. Our scheme has been quite successful."

Shuriah Niazi is a freelance writer based in central India.

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Tuesday, April 01, 2008
  Opposition KMT wins Taiwan election
By Kathrin Hille in Taipei
Published: March 23 2008, FT

Taiwan’s voters gave a resounding victory to Ma Ying-jeou of the opposition Kuomintang party in the island’s presidential election, raising hopes of a reduction in tensions with China.

Mr Ma gained 58.45 per cent of the vote. Frank Hsieh from the ruling Democratic Progressive Party won 41.55 per cent.

Mr Ma campaigned on a platform of dialogue with Beijing and closer economic links with China, which regards the self-governing island as a renegade province and has threatened to invade if it moves towards formal independence.

The clear result gives Mr Ma a strong mandate to prioritise economic development over Taiwanese nationalism, and is expected to trigger a rally in the Taiwan stock market on Monday. Investors have been buying Taiwan stocks ahead of the election, betting on a KMT victory over the incumbent Demoractic Progressive party.

However, Mr Ma made clear that unification with China is not on his agenda and that he sees it as his responsibility to safeguard Taiwan’s status quo.

Asked how he interpreted the mandate voters had given him, Mr Ma said: “It clearly says that Taiwan should be more open, more pragmatic and should not isolate itself. But it also says that Taiwan should be united.” Mr Ma’s victory follows a landslide KMT victory in legislative elections in January which gave the party a majority of more than two-thirds in parliament.

Chen Shui-bian, the outgoing DPP president, had increasingly focused on strengthening pro-independence identity in Taiwan after initial attempts at a rapprochement with China were frustrated by Beijing’s refusal to engage.

THe KMT's legislative and presidential victories mark a strong comeback for the party, which lost power in 2000 after ruling Taiwan for over 50 years after nationalist forces fled China in 1949 following defeat by Communist troops in the Chinese civil war.

The president-elect said he would work towards direct passenger aviation links with China as the first step in seeking rapprochement with the mainland when he is inaugurated in May.

Addressing a crowd of thousands of rejoicing supporters in front of his campaign headquarters, Mr Ma called the election a celebration of Taiwan’s core values of freedom and democracy, and pointed to the island’s role as the only democracy in the Chinese-speaking world.

The result of the election marks the third clear electoral defeat in in three years for the DPP. Observers said voters had used the ballot to condemn the ruling party for its weak legislative record and allegations of corruption.

“There’s only one comment to make about our eight years in power: We have failed in government,” said Chuang Suo-hang, a former DPP lawmaker who lost his seat in January.

The island also voted in two referendums on whether Taiwan should seek to join the United Nations. China has denounced the referendums as a “move towards independence.” The US, Taiwan’s sole protector against the threat from China, said they were an unnecessary and provocative step.

The two plebiscites were proposed by the DPP and the KMT respectively, and differed only in the name suggested for UN membership. They were both approved by more than 80 per cent of votes cast but failed to pass because they did not meet the required threshold of 50 per cent voter turnout.

China’s state-run Xinhua news agency said the results showed that Taiwan independence did not have the support of the people.

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  Straitened times: Taiwan looks to China
By Kathrin Hille
Tuesday Mar 25 2008, FT

After Ma Ying-jeou won Taiwan's presidential election on Saturday, jubilant supporters of his Kuomintang partied at the KMT headquarters all night. Investors were still celebrating when the market reopened on Monday, with stocks rising 4 per cent before easing back slightly on Tuesday.

Behind the exuberance stands the belief that the KMT's return to power could prove a historic moment - that it will put Taiwan on a track to closer economic integration with China, give the island its rightful share of the benefits of China's growth and defuse one of Asia's most dangerous latent conflicts. "The KMT and the Chinese leadership have a common objective: economic development on both sides of the Taiwan Strait and the easing of tension. They will work towards the goal of economic integration and the revitalisation of Taiwan's economy," says Peter Sutton, head of research at the Taipei office of CLSA, a regional brokerage.

Mr Ma (pictured above) says he wants to put disagreements over Taiwan's status aside and start talks with Beijing - first on economic issues and eventually on a peace accord. While China has long claimed sovereignty over the island and threatens to attack it should Taiwan formalise its de facto independence, Chinese leaders have responded by saying they are ready to communicate with any Taiwanese politician who does not actively push for independence.

All of this contrasts sharply with the atmosphere that has prevailed in the Taiwan Strait for most of the past decade. Both Chen Shui-bian, the incumbent president from the pro-independence Democratic Progressive party, in office since 2000, and his predecessor Lee Teng-hui started out with a pragmatic approach to China but quickly hardened their attitude after Beijing frustrated their efforts.

As a result, the semi-official dialogue that started in 1992 - the furthest the two sides had come since the KMT lost the civil war in China to the Chinese Communist party in 1949 and fled to Taiwan - has been cut off since 1998. Arguing that Taiwan must limit its economic dependence on a country so powerful and so politically hostile, Taipei has also maintained a set of rigid rules to restrict the flow of people, goods and services across the Strait.

But now the Taiwanese have elected a president who turns that argument on its head. Mr Ma has pledged to open direct air links with China within a year, allow large numbers of mainland tourists to visit Taiwan, invite Chinese investors to buy Taiwanese property, abolish many restrictions on foreign direct investment in China and do away with rules that tightly restrict investment by local funds in Chinese securities. "China is not only a threat but also an opportunity," says Mr Ma. "We have to maximise the opportunity and minimise the threat."

The reason for the change of heart is economic stagnation. While the island's electronics exporters have thrived and continue to grab market share globally, the domestic sector has suffered as manufacturing jobs move to China, money flows offshore for better returns and multinationals become increasingly reluctant to expand in Taiwan. Taiwanese businesses have watched Hong Kong, South Korea with envy in recent years as they sense that the island, once hailed as an "Asian tiger" alongside the other three, is falling behind.

Indeed, of the four, the island faces the slowest annual growth, forecast at just over 4 per cent. It also trails in terms of per capita income, which stands at some US$15,000 (£7,510, €9,630). Private consumption, which plummeted during the 2001 recession following the bursting of the tech bubble, has not recovered to pre-crisis levels, even though employment growth returned to its historical average. Fixed capital formation as a percentage of gross domestic product is one of the lowest in the region, while property prices have trailed those in Hong Kong, South Korea by a widening margin.

Many economists blame Taiwan's uneasy political relationship with China and its restrictions on economic exchanges with the mainland. The problem, they argue, is not the lack of economic interaction but its distorted nature.

China is already Taiwan's largest trading partner and investment destination. Taiwanese companies have relocated labour-intensive production to the mainland over the past 15 years and their cumulative FDI there might be close to US$300bn, according to the government's latest estimates - which would make Taiwan China's largest source of FDI.

"But the restrictions have so far made economic contacts a one-way street," says Grace Ng, an economist at JPMorgan in Hong Kong. "The ceiling [set by Taiwan] which limits companies' investments in China at 40 per cent of their net worth has failed to discourage them from mainland investments. It has just discouraged them from repatriating profits to Taiwan for the fear of not being able to use the funds for further expansion on the mainland."

Individual investors have showed a similar inclination to take funds offshore and keep them there. Again, analysts argue that restrictions on links with China are at least partly to blame. First, the government bans the sale on the island of mutual funds that invest more than a tiny portion in China-linked equities. Second, the 40 per cent rule has kept companies from listing in Taiwan to raise funds for expansion in China, giving local investors who want to build exposure to China's growth no choice but to move offshore.

As a result, Taiwan saw a US$38.9bn outflow from its financial account last year, which more than offset the current account surplus and resulted in its first overall balance of payments deficit in 10 years.

The ban on direct transport across the Strait has had similar effects. Travelling from Taipei to Shanghai, theoretically no more than a one-hour flight, currently takes more than six hours because travellers must transit in Hong Kong. This means Taiwanese entrepreneurs with investments on the other side of the Strait do not have the choice of commuting between Taiwan and China. Many have moved to the mainland and an estimated 2m Taiwanese now live in Shanghai. "The absence of this group with relatively strong spending power is certainly hurting Taiwan's domestic economy," says Ms Ng.

The ban on direct flights, together with Taiwan's unwelcoming attitude towards Chinese citizens, has also discouraged multinationals from putting more staff and more regional functions on the island. Most analysts expect that to change under Mr Ma. "Taiwan will be opened for Chinese capital and people so that Taipei can become a services centre for Greater China, just like Hong Kong," says Mr Sutton.

Not everyone shares this optimism. "I don't think that [relations with China] are the main problem," says Duncan Wooldridge, UBS's chief economist for Asia. "Taiwan is already the most integrated economy in the world with China; and Korea and Japan share the problem of weak domestic consumption. Why is it that only Taiwan should improve by moving even closer to China?" He predicts that Mr Ma's government will enjoy a honeymoon but will fail to meet the market's expectations in the longer term.

Mr Ma emphasises that links with China are just one dimension of his economic policy agenda. They will be complemented by efforts to push other bilateral and regional trade deals and plans to kick-start domestic demand with a T$4,000bn (£66bn, $133bn, €85bn) infrastructure investment programme.

But unlocking the potential for Taiwan to benefit more from its strong trade and investment links to China is still set to be the key psychological driver in the coming years. Ms Ng believes that the Hong Kong experience could provide a valuable example. "After the handover in 1997, Hong Kong was soul-searching because the perception was that it would become marginalised in Greater China," she says. "Although there are differences, this is the problem Taiwan faces now, too."

Hong Kong's fortunes changed after it signed a Closer Economic Partnership Agreement (Cepa) with China, which allowed the territory's banks to invest in Chinese counterparts and gave approval for residents from several Chinese provinces to travel to Hong Kong as tourists.

In Taiwan's case, economists say the main effects could come from companies giving up their past reluctance to invest at home, as tax changes and soaring labour costs damage the investment environment in China just as Taiwan is expected to become more attractive. "Hong Kong's annual growth post-Cepa has averaged at 6 to 7 per cent, up from 3.5 to 4 per cent before 2003, and a similar effect can be expected for Taiwan," says Ms Ng.

Having seen Taiwan transformed from an authoritarian one-party regime into one of Asia's most vibrant democracies, the Taiwanese reject few things more passionately than comparisons with Hong Kong. The parallels, therefore, cannot reach beyond pure economics. Since martial law was lifted in 1987 and democracy introduced in the early 1990s, Taiwan has gradually discovered an identity of its own. Only a tiny minority of the island's residents now accept the idea of future unification with their giant neighbour.

The twists and turns that Mr Ma has deemed necessary to appear acceptable to voters prove how deep-rooted this new identity now is. In the early phase of his campaign, Mr Ma said that his party's long-term goal remained eventual unification. But he takes the position that, for now, Taiwan is a sovereign country - a view first expressed by the DPP and fiercely rejected by Beijing many times. He also stresses that he will not negotiate over reunification but only over ways to handle the bilateral hostilities.

KMT representatives say the party's focus is and will be on power in Taiwan rather than on any role in a future united China. "Even beyond Mr Ma, it is hard to imagine that any KMT politician would seriously think about unification," says Ho Szu-yin, a political scientist at National Chengchi University who also works for the KMT.

The main difference between the KMT and the DPP could be described as one between realism and idealism. The DPP, a party founded in opposition to the KMT's authoritarian one-party regime in the 1980s, openly advocates Taiwanese independence. The KMT in the past tried to impose a Chinese nationalist ideology on Taiwan and cling to its goal of eventual unification but it has moved to the middle since democratisation for the sake of political survival. "We also love Taiwan, but we love it in a realistic way. We take the view that if we don't have wealth we don't have power," says Mr Ho. "Economic clout is Taiwan's raison d'etre."

That certainly differs from China's long-term objectives. "The Chinese leadership hopes to create an irreversible trend towards peaceful integration," says George Tsai, a professor at Chinese Culture University and one of Taiwan's leading experts on cross-Strait relations. But he believes that China's leaders are happy for now, having been reassured by Mr Ma that formal independence will not be an issue under his government.

Therefore the new start between Beijing and Taipei could be about much more than business, even though it does not put Taiwan on the road towards unification.

Mr Tsai says that by the end of Mr Ma's first term, China and Taiwan could have implemented confidence-building measures such as the exchange of information on weapons deployments and troop movements and the establishment of communication channels between the armed forces to reduce the risk of conflict: "That would be a good start for another four years and far beyond anything that has been achieved ever since 1949."

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  US mistakenly sent N-missile parts to Taiwan
By Demetri Sevastopulo in Washington
Tuesday Mar 25 2008, FT

The US mistakenly sent nuclear missile components to Taiwan in 2006, the Pentagon revealed on Tuesday, marking the second big failure of nuclear safeguards in recent years.

The Pentagon accidentally shipped four fuses for the Minuteman missile instead of helicopter batteries that Taiwan had ordered. Robert Gates, the US defence secretary, has ordered an investigation even though no fissile material was sent to Taiwan.

"[Mistakes] cannot be tolerated in the arena in strategic systems, whether they are nuclear or associated equipment, as was in this case," said Ryan Henry, a senior Pentagon official.

While the fuses are similar to those used on convention missiles, the models shipped to Taiwan were specifically designed for the Mk12 nuclear warhead, which would be attached to an intercontinental ballistic missile.

The revelation follows another embarrassing incident last year when a B-52 bomber unwittingly carried nuclear weapons across the US without military officials realising that the warheads had gone missing.

In the latest case, the Pentagon was unaware that the fuses had disappeared from storage. Taiwan notified the US earlier this year that the shipment did not match the order for batteries. Only last week, however, did the Pentagon realise that the shipped equipment was not another kind of battery, but the fuses used to trigger the start of the detonation process.

The US informed the Chinese government, which views Taiwan as a renegade province, about the matter on Tuesday, in advance of the public disclosure. Mr Henry stressed that US policy on Taiwan had not changed, saying the shipment was simply an error. The US is legally required to help Taiwan defend itself.

Daryl Kimball, executive director of the Arms Control Association, said the "extremely stupid" mistake underscored that "procedures and controls on these sensitive items need to be reviewed and tightened". The Pentagon was also examining whether the transfer breached any international arms treaties or congressional regulations.

Admiral Kirkland Donald will investigate the error, and the Pentagon has ordered a comprehensive review to determine how the safeguards failed. Geoff Morrell, Pentagon press secretary, said Mr Gates chose a senior Navy officer partly to avoid any perception of conflict of interest.

While Taipei did not inform the Pentagon about the discrepancy until earlier this year, more than a year after the components were delivered, Michael Wynne, secretary of the air force, said the Taiwanese authorities had acted "very responsibly".

Mr Wynne said there was no indication that the fuses had been probed for intelligence. Mr Henry said there was no evidence that they had been tampered with, but added that the investigation would consider that possibility.

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  Taiwan president cautious over KMT resurgence
By Kathrin Hille in Taipei
Published: March 28 2008, FT

Winning a presidential election with a margin of 16 percentage points would be considered a triumph for most politicians or their parties.

But Ma Ying-jeou, who defeated his rival by a landslide in Taiwan’s presidential poll last weekend, speaks of “feeling fear” as he considers his term, while Wu Po-hsiung, who chairs Mr Ma’s Kuomintang (KMT) party, has declared: “This is not a victory of the KMT.”

Prompting such a cautious response is anxiety that Mr Ma could struggle to get his party under control, and that the KMT’s return to power could be short-lived if it is seen to abuse the dominant position it has gained in elections this year by winning both the presidency and a two-thirds majority in parliament.

Once omnipotent in Taiwan, the KMT today is a collection of factions and individuals with little in common beyond the consensus that the local economy needs to be fixed. The one thing holding it together is Mr Ma’s overwhelming popularity, which has both helped it win back power and put a heavy load on his shoulders.

“Faced with this huge responsibility, I feel I need to be very careful, and I feel fear,” Mr Ma said after his election triumph.

The KMT, under Chiang Kai-shek’s leadership, retreated to Taiwan in 1949 after defeat by the Communists. It ruled the island under an authoritarian, one-party regime for more than 40 years, imposing a Chinese nationalist ideology and claiming to be the legitimate government of China. But after trying to “localise” its message in the 1990s, it lost power in 2000 to the Democratic Progressive party (DPP), founded by former dissidents keen to pursue Taiwan’s formal independence and an agenda of social justice.

Since then, the KMT has developed into a concoction of ideological directions and policy orientations.

Chen Chien-chung, an official at the party’s central policy committee, said; “I admit that, in contrast to the DPP, the [KMT] doesn’t really have any core values or ideological beliefs.”

In recent years, KMT conservatives favouring a return to the Chinese nationalism of the party’s founding fathers, have gained ground.

Simultaneously, KMT lawmakers concerned with building personal support bases have increasingly opted for populist posturing – blurring the party’s traditional pro-business image.

For example, Lee Chi-chu, a legislator now considered a possible choice for finance minister, took part in efforts to ground DPP attempts to privatise government banks and reform an overcrowded and underperforming financial sector.

KMT legislators have also in recent years blocked most of the government’s planned weapons purchases from the US, with one protagonist – the former general Shuai Hwa-min – seen as a potential candidate for defence minister in Mr Ma’s cabinet.

The past unruliness of the KMT has raised questions over whether Mr Ma will be able to control his party.

“He is far too soft for our liking, and many of us had to swallow their hate before we voted for him,” says Chang Ling-chen, a professor of political science at National Taiwan University and a KMT conservative.

Mr Ma’s decision to surround himself with a small circle of trusted advisers – none of whom holds a post in the KMT hierarchy – has created distrust among other senior politicians in the party. He is also at odds with major factions.

A descendant of a mainland family, born in Hong Kong and a former aide to the late president Chiang Ching-kuo, Mr Ma has the wrong background, in the eyes of “localised” KMT factions. Pro-China stalwarts, meanwhile, view him with suspicion because he insists he will not negotiate a re-unification with the mainland, and insists on criticising Beijing’s human-rights record.

But people close to Mr Ma say that his demonstrated popular support means the party will have no choice but to follow him.

“He is all the party has got,” said one senior aide.

“If the result had been close, there might have been claims by certain people in the party that he owed his victory to them. But that is out of the question now.”

Copyright The Financial Times Limited 2008

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  马英九为何“戒慎恐惧”?
作者:英国《金融时报》席佳琳(Kathrin Hille)台北报道
2008年4月2日 星期三

对于大多数政客或政党来说,以16个百分点的优势赢得总统大选,都可以被视为一个胜利。

在最近台湾总统选举投票中,马英九以压倒优势击败了对手。但面对未来施政,他自言“戒慎恐惧”,而国民党主席吴伯雄宣称:“这不是国民党一党的胜利。”

他们之所以作出这种谨慎的回应,是因为担心马英九可能难以控制其政党,加之今年国民党不仅赢得总统大选,还获得立法院三分之二的多数席位,如果人们认为该党滥用其在选举中赢得的这种主导地位,那么国民党此番重掌大权可能只是昙花一现。

曾经在台湾呼风唤雨的国民党,如今只是不同派系和个人的集合体,除了在需要重振台湾经济方面具有共识以外,没有什么共同点。将国民党凝聚在一起的,是马英九压倒性的名望,这不仅帮助国民党夺回大权,也使马英九肩负重任。

马英九在大选胜利后表示,想到台湾人民给了这么大的责任,他未来会“以戒慎恐惧、居安思危的心情好好的做”。

蒋介石领导的国民党在被共产党打败后,于1949年败退台湾。该党以威权式的一党制统治台湾40多年,在当地灌输中国民族主义意识形态,并自称为中国的合法政府。但在上世纪90年代试图将其主张“本土化”后,国民党在2000年大选中败给了民进党。民进党是由热衷于寻求台湾正式独立和社会公平议程的前异见者创立的。

自那以来,国民党已发展成为一个各种意识形态方向和政策导向的综合体。

国民党中央政策委员会官员Chen Chien-chung表示:“我承认,相对于民进党,本党并没有任何核心价值观或意识形态方面的信念。”

近年来,国民党内保守派人士赞成回归该党创始人所推崇的中国民族主义观念,他们赢得了一些支持。

与此同时,关心个人民意的国民党立委越来越倾向于选择民粹主义姿态——令该党传统的亲商形象变得模糊。

例如,目前被视为台湾财长潜在人选的立委李纪珠,就参与阻挠民进党推行公有银行私有化及改革过于拥挤且表现不佳的金融领域的努力。

近年来,国民党立委还封杀了民进党政府向美国购买武器的大多数计划,其中一位积极分子——退役中将帅化民——被视为马英九内阁国防部长的潜在人选。

国民党以往的难以驾驭,引发了有关马英九能否控制该党的疑问。

国立台湾大学政治学系教授、国民党保守派人士Chang Ling-chen表示:“他太软弱了,不是我们喜欢的类型,在投他的票之前,我们中的许多人不得不按捺自己的不满。”

马英九决定在自己身边建立一个亲信顾问组成的小圈子——他们中没有人在国民党党内任职——这在国民党其他高层人士之中造成了不信任感。同时,他也与党内一些主要派系意见相左。

马英九祖籍大陆,生于香港,曾担任已故台湾总统蒋经国的秘书,在“本土化”国民党派系眼中,他的背景有问题。与此同时,坚定的亲大陆人士也用怀疑的眼光看待他,因为他坚称不会与大陆谈判统一问题,并坚持批评北京的人权记录。

但接近马英九的人表示,他所展现出的民意支持率,意味着国民党将别无选择,只能跟随他。

一位高级助理表示:“他是党的唯一希望。”

“如果投票结果非常接近,党内某些人可能会声称,他的胜利应归功于他们。但现在不存在这种可能。”

译者/何黎

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  如何与“老外”谈西藏?
北京语言大学教师滕青为英国《金融时报》中文网撰稿
2008年4月2日 星期三

几天前,我接受法国《西南报》的采访,目的是介绍我这里的孔子学院。报社记者却对我的个人旅游经历与西藏问题倍感兴趣。我不得不用很大的力气不断地把话题拉回。

昨天一天,我家电话未断,都是各种人谈近期西藏骚乱问题的。法国各电视台都在不断放画面、组织讨论会,而议题的倾向与情绪是什么,不用我在这里说了。给我打电话的,有法国人有中国人,有老人有年轻人。最长的一次电话两个小时。

《西南报》的记者告诉我,他们本来就是想借机问我西藏问题的。

现在,我想就这次西藏事件写几句,不是谈西藏问题本身,而是想谈怎样与西方人沟通,让他们听得进去你想讲的东西,尽管他们可能无法同意你的观点。

你不该指望人家同意你的观点,也不能指望人家会认真听你讲你自己认为你了解的事实真相。否则,你就是对自己或对别人希求过高了。

你的目的应是让人听到你的解释,了解你的看法,让别人能从他自己固有的思维定势中跳出来,换个角看度看问题。只要他们能听得进去,也许,他们会有一些想法和作法上的改变。那你就算没白费心思了。

我总是先从就事论事的角度说起。关于这次骚乱事件,我先讲三点。

第一, 这次矛盾是怎么出现的?

如果你是中国政府或中国的首脑,你会在奥运之前几个月自己挑起国内的少数民族矛盾吗?

会吗?显然不会。这是个简单的逻辑问题,中国政府不会那么傻。那好,为何现在突发西藏危机,且如此尖锐、激烈、暴力,各种画面已经证明。

奥运之前,整个中国都在为这次聚会而忙碌,如果出现某些问题,通常会设法缓和弥补拖延,而不是去激化。现在激烈的矛盾突然出现,是谁在推动?也许读者自己可以找到答案。但不论是谁,挑起者一定不是中国政府。

当老师的,喜欢提问题,这很重要。当我问法国的学生:“为什么突然出现动乱?”学生们会立刻会反问,“对啊?为什么啊?”他们急于知道我怎么回答。

其实,提问之后,不用他们回答,我就能知道他们心里的答案是什么。真的不用多解释什么,我在国外,跟他们一样不在现场,但我可以从他们能接受的逻辑说起。

第二,谁是明白人?

我接着问,你知道甘南在哪儿吗?

我现在到哪儿都带着中国地图,在电话里也是用口头描述的方式,跟人家讲中国地图。

知道甘南与拉萨之间的距离有多远吗?我问。“用你们知道的来比,那等于是南欧与北欧间的差距。”这样远的距离,同时出现骚乱,同样有打抢烧杀。这是怎么回事?而且,在西方,也与中国内部同时并进,在不同国家的中国使馆跳墙、插旗、示威,在一些重要场合抢出镜头,舞动雪山狮子旗。你们想想,是谁所为?

这还用答吗?真觉得他们组织得挺成功的——奥运之前,是个机会,用极端的方式吸引世人眼球和媒体关注。他们目的达到了吗?达到了。

因为你们被吸引了,并跟着一起呐喊和批判,其实你们也并不了解多少真实,也不想搞清多少真实——支持弱者向强者抗议是人们眼里的正义者和英雄,对吗?谁不想当正义者,谁不想当英雄?

尤其是特要面子、要名声的知识分子——喊声最高,喊得最早的恐怕会最受尊敬吧?老百姓也同样,三个法国人在一起就谈政治,显得有正义形象、有国际观、且有文化有水平。但是,如此复杂的民族矛盾问题靠这样情绪化的指责能解决吗?

当然,我也理解,不整出点特别的动静来,什么事也别想有进展。我不是政客,我要是,也这么干。

但明白人不是你们这些跟着喊的人,这点很清楚。

第三,西文媒体本次是怎么表现的?

你们看不明白相貌,看不明白地域特点,看不明白服装,只见电视画面上有暴力,有打砸抢,有流血,有军人有枪支,有西藏喇嘛的服装,就会情绪化起来,甚至跟着无声的画面走。从扶弱抗强的角度出发,不用动脑子就可以想当然地“知道”是汉人在以强恃弱,是汉人在打藏人。

德国某媒体已经承认他们的解说词有误,别家呢?我常看《欧洲新闻》频道,它极为“聪明”,播放大量西藏暴力镜头,不做任何解释,一遍遍地放,有时一小时就放好几遍,只消加一段“无评论”字样。如此,它不犯语言上的错误,就传达了它想传达的东西。传达什么呢?一方面,是有声的片段,多是喇嘛们或藏独人士的控诉,一方面是无声无解释的暴力画面——他们觉得观众就该“全清楚”了。

一位在巴黎的华人在街上做过随机采访,十几位受访者都以为是汉人在藏区搞打砸抢烧杀呢。我遇到的法国人也有以为藏人被杀上百。这样的报道还有客观吗?法国百姓通过这样的媒体传导,真能清楚真相吗?

当然情绪化的报道是难免的,可这次有点太过了。

从另一角度看,这真是藏独人士运作的成功啊。

但是,现在这种报道方式真把中国人给激怒了,在各国的移民和留学生也急了。这也是正常的反应,要没有反应那才真奇怪了呢。

就事论事之后,我谈谈我的观点。

我去过两次西藏,住过藏族人家,遇到过几周在西藏转悠却不承认到过中国的西方游客,也遇到过为坚决不支持中国的西藏旅游事业而放弃到喜玛拉雅北端登山、只在尼泊尔一侧多次登山的西方人。

因为长期教外国留学生,我常会与之谈及西藏问题。我自己也不断关注西藏,看过不少有关的书籍与文章,与不同观点的人有过交流与讨论。每个人知识结构不同、理解不同,可以各持已见,没必要在这里多写。

但是,我常从更宏观的角度看待民族与宗教问题。

我觉得中华文明自古在民族问题与宗教问题上,已经比世界其它地方多了不少宽容而少了不少你死我活。然而,中国进入近现代历史开始接受西方文化价值观后,反而问题越来越多。这不仅在中国,在很多国家都一样。

中国人口13亿,在这个地球上的65亿人里,差不多5个人里一个中国人,而在中国人里过去93%现在92%是汉人。这十多亿的汉人从哪儿来?汉民族是一个什么样的独特的民族?所有汉人都有一样的纯种的祖先吗?

中国,作为有清楚地理概念的中国才多少年?在历史上,中国或曰中华文明圈长时间是处于政权分裂状态、战争不断,有外族侵略,有内部割据,有农民起义,也有打着宗教旗帜的全国内乱——然而,争来打去却没有分裂成为众多的小国,没有那么尖锐对立的宗教分野。

难道民族、语言、地域划分到极细就是先进?就是更好?就是方向?当代理论是怎么描述的?十字军东征在历史上断断续续多少年多少次?上世纪的两次世界大战都是从什么地方开始的?我不断地提这些问题,西方人愿意听、跟着想、随时辨,均有收益。

几千年前、中国古哲人的学说里早有关于混沌说的理论,现代时髦叫模糊学。模糊学可以对复杂的事物进行高度概括,不必把事物一一分成“非此即彼”的状态。而且这种学说一直在中华文明圈内实践着。

当下时兴国家独立,民族独立,同宗同教要自己的独立的地域、自己的政权。科索沃是独立了,它标志着什么呢?西班牙的巴斯克呢?法国的科西嘉岛呢?现在世界上有成百上千的科索沃现象在等着动作呢。

西方人自己也没法很好地解决内部的民族与宗教问题,而且也是越来越头疼、越来越不好处理。

应该说,现在的整体理论体系有问题。民族、国家、宗教宗派越分越细越分越清楚,这有什么好处吗?

在这种情况下,如何怀有正义感地支持弱小的国家、弱小的民族、弱小的群体,真让有识之士们大费脑筋。

西方人在面对他自的此类问题时,往往复杂的民族情感、经济利益、血缘、地缘、宗教派系、政治观点等多方面因素,也很迷茫,并难有一致看法。然而同时,当与之无关地区的宗教、国家、民族矛盾事件出现时,西方人就很容易自以为是地表达自己的“正义感”及英雄气概。于是,多重标准、多种不同价值评断等问题的出现就不难想象了。在一连串针对“行使双重标准”的批评面前,他们也常常无言以对。

他们也有难以抉择的时候。面对本次西藏民族矛盾,经过种种反思,他们中的一部分人也许会从情绪冲动的状态转而进入冷静的心理矛盾状态,开始认真思考一些非表象的东西。

多年前,我去法国科西嘉岛玩,当地一个支持藏独的团体成员听说来了个中国人,主动找我讨论西藏问题。跟他们讨论了整整一夜,我开玩笑说,我现在知道我回中国后第一件事要做什么了,我要组织一个支持科西嘉独立协会,感觉一定特好。

(作者系北京语言大学教师,正在法国从事对外汉语教学工作)

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